Understanding nonuse of mandatory e-scooter helmets.

OBJECTIVES: Head injuries resulting from e-scooter use have led to calls for helmet use to be promoted or mandatory. Helmet use is mandatory for e-scooters in Australia but observational studies have reported significant levels of nonuse, particularly by riders of shared e-scooters. The aim of this study is to understand whether nonuse in the mandatory context is a consistent behavior for an individual or is situationally-influenced, and what are the factors associated with nonuse. METHODS: An online survey was completed between 2022 and 2023 by 360 adult e-scooter riders in Canberra, Australia. Riders were asked whether they had worn a helmet on their last ride and how often they had not worn a helmet when riding in the last 30 days. The survey also asked about rider characteristics (demographics, frequency of e-scooter and bicycle use, perceived risk of e-scooter use, e-scooter ownership, and risky behaviors while riding), trip duration and perceptions of the helmet requirement (knowledge of and support for the law). RESULTS: Respondents were mostly male, young, highly educated, and full-time workers. Of the 29.1% of riders who reported riding without a helmet in the last 30 days, 24.4% had worn a helmet at least once during that period and 4.8% had consistently not worn a helmet. Younger age, shared e-scooter use and more frequent riding frequency (shared e-scooters only) were associated with helmet nonuse in the bivariate analyses but not in the logistic regression. Logistic regression showed that the independent predictors of helmet nonuse were the number of risky riding behaviors, lack of knowledge, and lack of support for the law. CONCLUSIONS: Most nonuse of helmets in a mandatory context seems to be situational, rather than consistent. Many of the factors associated with nonuse of helmets for e-scooters are similar to those reported for bicycles. Nonuse of helmets appears to be one of a number of risky behaviors performed by riders, rather than being primarily an outcome that is specific to factors associated with helmets (e.g., concerns about hygiene, discomfort or availability).

Learning about crash causation from countermeasure evaluation: The example of the Queensland minimum passing distance rule.

Close passes by motor vehicles endanger both the safety and comfort of bicycle riders. Governments in many countries have introduced laws requiring drivers to maintain at least a minimum distance between their vehicle and the cyclist they are passing, despite relatively poor understanding of the causes of bicycle overtaking crashes at the time. Queensland was the first state in Australia to introduce such a law, with a two-year trial commencing in April 2014. The data collected during the evaluation of the trial were later analysed to answer two main questions: "Under what circumstances do close passes occur?" and "Why do drivers pass too close?". The first question was largely approached by analysing the video observations of more than 18,000 riders (including 2,000 passing events) at 15 locations on Queensland roads and examining the infrastructure, traffic and road user characteristics that influenced passing distances. The second question was addressed in experimental studies which used the video observations as stimuli. This paper demonstrates how the political need for evaluation of a countermeasure can act as a stimulus for research funding that then allows data collection, analysis and better understanding of crash causation. Logically, introduction of a countermeasure should be based on a rigorous understanding of crash causation. But when this does not occur, evaluation may provide data that can be used to answer questions about crash causation - or at least pose new questions.

Passing distance, speed and perceived risks to the cyclist and driver in passing events.

INTRODUCTION: Up to 38% of crashes between motor vehicles and cyclists involve overtaking and close passes, contributing to a fear of cycling for both current and potential riders. Consequently, most research has focused on the cyclist's perceptions of risk in passing events; but the driver's perceptions may be more influential determinants of passing distances and thus, objective crash risk. METHOD: In an online cross-sectional survey, participants viewed 24 video clips of naturalistic passing events (external view akin to being a following driver) on urban roads in Queensland, Australia and judged distance and safety for both the portrayed cyclist and the passing driver. The passing events were filmed at a low-speed site (40 km/h speed limit) and a high-speed site (70 km/h speed limit). RESULTS: The 240 cyclist participants were more likely to rate the pass as unsafe for the portrayed cyclist than the 71 non-cyclist participants. Narrow passing distance, parked vehicles, oncoming vehicles, and higher motor vehicle speeds were significant predictors of rating the pass as unsafe for the portrayed cyclist and the passing driver. In addition, female participants were more likely to rate the pass as unsafe for the driver. Participant age, attitudes toward cyclists and frequency of passing cyclists did not significantly affect safety judgments. DISCUSSION: Traffic and roadway characteristics largely underlie perceptions of safety for both the cyclist and the driver when passing, even after accounting for passing distance. External, objective factors are more important than attitudes toward cyclists. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Attempts to improve the subjective and objective safety of passing events may be more successful if their focus is on modifying traffic and roadway characteristics, rather than attempting to change drivers' attitudes toward cyclists. Limitations on motor-vehicle passing speed should be incorporated as part of safe bicycle passing laws.

E-scooter riders and pedestrians: Attitudes and interactions in five countries.

Electric scooters (e-scooters) have become a popular phenomenon internationally; however, their use has raised concerns about pedestrian safety. This study describes the possible effects of the emergence of e-scooters on pedestrians. We focus on the interaction, conflicts, crashes, and attitudes between pedestrians and e-scooter riders and pedestrians' perceived safety in the presence of e-scooters. Data were collected from e-scooter riders and non-riders (n = 3385) through an online survey in Australia, Belgium, the Czech Republic, Norway, and Sweden. Around 20-30% of e-scooter riders rode on sidewalks, whether it is allowed or not. Non-riders of e-scooters tended to report that riding an e-scooter is rather dangerous. Pedestrians, except Australian ones, perceived e-scooter riders (and e-scooter operation) as annoying. Half of the e-scooter riders had experienced a near miss at some point in the past and more than 50% of these near misses included another road user. Up to 10% of the e-scooter riders from all five countries reported having experienced a crash. On the basis of these findings, we believe that the most relevant suggestions for the implications in sustainable (urban) mobility involve separating e-scooter riders and pedestrians.

The prototype willingness model: An application to adolescent driver speeding.

INTRODUCTION: Many young drivers are involved in crashes due to speeding. Some studies have used the Prototype Willingness Model (PWM) to explain the risky driving behavior of young people. However, many have measured PWM constructs in a manner inconsistent with its formulation. The PWM asserts that the social reaction pathway is underpinned by a heuristic comparison of oneself with a cognitive prototype of someone who engages in a risky behavior. This proposition has not been comprehensively examined and few PWM studies specifically examine social comparison. The current study investigates intentions, expectations, and willingness to speed by teen drivers using operationalizations of PWM constructs more aligned with their original conceptualizations. Additionally, the influence of dispositional social comparison tendency on the social reaction pathway is examined to further test the original propositions underpinning the PWM. METHOD: Two hundred and eleven independently driving adolescents completed an online survey including items measuring PWM constructs and social comparison tendency. Hierarchical multiple regression was used to investigate the influence of perceived vulnerability, descriptive and injunctive norms, and prototypes on speeding intentions, expectations, and willingness. A moderation analysis examined the effect of social comparison tendency on the association between prototype perceptions and willingness. RESULTS: The regression models explained substantial amounts of variance in intentions (39%), expectations (49%), and willingness (30%) to speed. There was no evidence that social comparison tendency influences the relationship between prototypes and willingness. CONCLUSIONS: The PWM is useful for predicting teenage risky driving. More studies should confirm that social comparison tendency does not moderate the social reaction pathway. However, there may be need for further theoretical development of the PWM. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: The study suggests that it may be possible to develop interventions to reduce adolescent driver speeding based on manipulation of PWM constructs such as speeding driver prototypes.

What contributes to drug driving? An exploratory investigation into the influence of problematic substance use, roadside testing and alternative transport options.

Despite a strong reliance on enforcement approaches to prevent drug driving in Australia, this behaviour is still prevalent. The objective of this study was to investigate the influence of problematic drug use (i.e., showing indications of addiction), exposure to roadside drug testing, the use of detection avoidance strategies, and perceptions relating to alternative transport options on drug driving among illicit drug users. A total of 1,541 licensed drivers from the states of Queensland, New South Wales, and Victoria completed an online survey. The survey collected demographic and problematic substance use information, as well as items assessing drug driving behaviour. Cannabis was reported to be the most commonly used drug (36.0%); the most common drug of problematic use (27.9%), and the drug most often taken prior to driving (43.5%). Observing police operating Roadside Drug Tests (RDT) was more common among the participants than being tested by RDT (35.7% vs 23%). The results indicated a significant association between being a drug driver and observing or being tested by RDT. The drug drivers were significantly more likely to report using a range of strategies to avoid police detection than the non-drug drivers. Similarly, the drug drivers reported that it was more difficult for them to use various alternative transport options than the non-drug drivers. Decision tree analyses found that significant predictors of self-reported drug driving were problematic drug use, holding a provisional or probationary licence, earning a low- or middle-income, and using detection avoidance strategies like remaining watchful for police vehicles and taking back streets. The findings of this study suggest that ongoing improvements to drug driving enforcement will need to be complemented by health-based approaches designed to reduce drug abuse and dependence, and improvements to public transport, in order to achieve a sustainable reduction in drug driving.

Risky business: Comparing the riding behaviours of food delivery and private bicycle riders.

The growth in the gig economy and a preference for home delivery of meals due to COVID-19 have led to huge growth in the food delivery business internationally and consequent road safety concerns. There is increasing evidence that delivery riding is an occupation with significant road safety risks because work pressures encourage risky behaviours. However, there is little or no research that directly compares delivery and private riders. Thus, the aim of this study was to examine the impact of riding for work by comparing the observable riding behaviours of food delivery and private bicycle riders. Specifically, this investigation used decision trees to analyse the prevalence and patterns of risky riding behaviours of 2274 bicycle food delivery riders (BFDRs) and 1127 private bicycle riders observed in the inner suburbs of Brisbane, Australia. The results showed that helmet use was higher for BFDRs than private riders (99.8% versus 93.4%) but varied by company and for some companies, female BFDRs had lower wearing rates. Male BFDRs on electric bikes were more likely to wear helmets than those on standard bikes (99.7% versus 94.9%). Using a handheld mobile phone or having a mobile phone in a cradle was less common for one company (0.6%) than for the others (3.0%) or among private riders (1.8%). Among riders from the Other Companies, using a handheld mobile phone was more common on standard bikes and differed by time of day. Female BFDRs were more likely to be observed using handheld mobile phones. Overall, 24.0% of riders facing a red traffic or pedestrian signal ("red light") did not stop. This was more common among riders who rode on the footpath (Australian term for sidewalk), and particularly those who moved between the footpath and the road on electric bikes (49.5%) and among those who rode in the wrong direction in the traffic lane (55.0%). Whether the rider was a BFDR or private rider had little influence on red light running. The results suggest that BFDRs are not more likely to perform the risky behaviours examined, but that other factors such as bicycle type, gender, time of day and infrastructure appear to be more important determinants. However, the differences among companies suggest that organisational factors deserve further investigation.

A systematic review of factors associated with illegal drug driving.

Drug driving is a serious problem worldwide that can increase the risk of road crashes. This systematic review seeks to identify factors associated with drug driving (i.e., driving after consuming drugs other than alcohol) to highlight gaps in existing knowledge and inform the design of more effective countermeasures. A search of the literature was conducted for the period January 1, 2005 to July 31, 2021 using six different databases. The search protocol followed PRISMA guidelines and was registered in PROSPERO (#CRD42021234616). Studies that met inclusion criteria compared drug drivers with either non-drug drivers, alcohol-only drivers or drug drivers from an earlier time period, to identify factors specifically associated with drug driving, rather than common to all drivers. Two hundred and nineteen publications met the inclusion criteria and were included within the review. Based on the findings, a logic model was developed that presents the factors associated with drug driving. Various sociodemographic, psychosocial and legal factors emerged as the main factors associated with illegal drug driving. At the sociodemographic and psychological levels, drug drivers were more likely to be single, young males who often drive after using cannabis and who score high on sensation-seeking and impulsivity scales. The key social factor found to be associated with drug driving was peer acceptance/disapproval of the behaviour. At the legal level, the review suggested that the effectiveness of current enforcement approaches to drug driving vary among jurisdictions around the world due to differences in the level of perceived certainty of apprehension and the chances of punishment avoidance. Future research into the anticipated and actual rewards for drug driving is needed to inform the development of more effective countermeasures.

Comparing the cycling behaviours of Australian, Chinese and Colombian cyclists using a behavioural questionnaire paradigm.

Cyclists are vulnerable road users and face disproportionately high rates of road trauma, especially in low- and middle-income countries. Behaviour of road users is a system outcome, and thus studying cyclist behaviours can identify problems in the whole road transport system and assist in generating long-lasting, cost-effective solutions to promote cyclist safety. This study aims to investigate the similarities and disparities of cycling behaviour among countries with different income levels and cycling prevalence, and the relationships among cyclist demographic characteristics, behaviours and crash involvement. It applies the Cycling Behaviour Questionnaire (CBQ) to measure the behaviour of cyclists in three countries: Australia (high-income, emerging cycling country), China (mid-income, traditional cycling country) and Colombia (low-income, emerging cycling country). A total of 1094 cyclists (Australia 347, China 368, and Colombia 379) with a mean age of 31.8 years completed the online questionnaire. Confirmatory Factor Analysis was used to examine the factorial structure of the CBQ. The results showed that the three-factor CBQ (i.e., Traffic Violations, Errors and Positive Behaviours) had a stable and uniform factorial structure across all three countries. Cyclists reported more frequent positive behaviours than risky behaviours across all three countries. The Australian cyclists reported more positive behaviours and fewer violations than cyclists from the other countries, which is likely to reflect the road environment, policy and enforcement differences. Male cyclists tended to engage in more risky riding than females and reported more crash involvement. Older cyclists reported less risky riding and less involvement in crashes than younger cyclists. Cyclists who rode more often reported more frequent risky riding. The study helps understand the prevalence of risky/positive cyclist behaviours among countries and provides insights for developing systematic countermeasures to improve cycling environment and cyclist safety.

Changes in shared and private e-scooter use in Brisbane, Australia and their safety implications.

Shared electric scooter (e-scooter) schemes debuted in US cities in 2017 and have spread to many cities worldwide. Rider inexperience and the inexperience of other road users in interacting with e-scooters may be contributing to injuries. Shared e-scooters came to Brisbane, Australia, in November 2018 and our observational study in February 2019 found a high level of non-compliance with regulations by riders of shared, but not private, e-scooters. This paper examines whether e-scooter safety improved over time by comparing the numbers and behaviors of shared and private e-scooter riders with a follow-up observational study conducted in October 2019. Riders of e-scooters (and bicycles) were counted at six sites in inner-city Brisbane by trained observers over four weekdays. Type of e-scooter (private, Lime, Neuron), helmet use, gender, age group, riding location, time of day and presence of passengers were recorded. The number of shared e-scooters observed dropped from 711 in February to 495 in October but the number of private e-scooters increased from 90 to 269, resulting in a slight reduction in the total number of e-scooters. The correct helmet wearing rate increased non-significantly from 61.4% to 66.8% for shared e-scooters and remained high for riders of private e-scooters (95.5% in February and 94.3% in October). The percentage of e-scooters ridden on the road (which is illegal in central Brisbane) remained roughly the same (shared: 6.6% in February, 4.2% in October; private: 4.5% in February, 4.9% in October). The percentage of children and adolescents (illegally) riding shared e-scooters fell from 10.3% to 6.7%. The prevalence of any of these illegal behaviors among shared e-scooter riders fell significantly for shared e-scooter riders from 49.6% to 39.1% while the prevalence of illegal behaviors by other riders remained lower and did not change. The reduction in illegal behavior among shared e-scooter riders accompanied by the tripling of usage of private e-scooters suggests that e-scooter safety is likely to have improved.

Autonomous Vehicles and Vulnerable Road-Users-Important Considerations and Requirements Based on Crash Data from Two Countries.

(1) Background: Passenger vehicles equipped with advanced driver-assistance system (ADAS) functionalities are becoming more prevalent within vehicle fleets. However, the full effects of offering such systems, which may allow for drivers to become less than 100% engaged with the task of driving, may have detrimental impacts on other road-users, particularly vulnerable road-users, for a variety of reasons. (2) Crash data were analysed in two countries (Great Britain and Australia) to examine some challenging traffic scenarios that are prevalent in both countries and represent scenarios in which future connected and autonomous vehicles may be challenged in terms of safe manoeuvring. (3) Road intersections are currently very common locations for vulnerable road-user accidents; traffic flows and road-user behaviours at intersections can be unpredictable, with many vehicles behaving inconsistently (e.g., red-light running and failure to stop or give way), and many vulnerable road-users taking unforeseen risks. (4) Conclusions: The challenges of unpredictable vulnerable road-user behaviour at intersections (including road-users violating traffic or safe-crossing signals, or taking other risks) combined with the lack of knowledge of CAV responses to intersection rules, could be problematic. This could be further compounded by changes to nonverbal communication that currently exist between road-users, which could become more challenging once CAVs become more widespread.

Cycle Aware: Piloting a module for novice drivers.

INTRODUCTION: In low-cycling countries, motor-vehicle traffic and driver behavior are well known barriers to the uptake of bicycles, particularly for utility cycling. Lack of separation between cyclists and faster-moving traffic is one key issue, while attitudes of drivers toward and/or harassment of cyclists is another. Cyclist-related driver education has been recommended as a means to improve driver-cyclist interactions. METHODS: The driver licensing process provides an opportunity for such education. The Cycle Aware module was developed to test and enhance novice drivers' knowledge of interacting safely with cyclists. It was piloted across three Australian jurisdictions targeting both novice and experienced drivers. Participants were asked to complete the Cycle Aware module and an accompanying survey. A total of 134 novice and 97 experienced drivers completed the survey with 42 novice and 50 experienced drivers going on to complete the module. RESULTS: Both groups of drivers scored equally well in the module but the very youngest and very oldest participants were more likely to have some incorrect responses. We did not find any relationship between correct module scores and attitudes toward cyclists. Survey results showed both novice and experienced drivers had somewhat positive attitudes toward cyclists. The two cohorts differed on several attitude questions. Sixty percent (60%) of novices compared to 30% of experienced drivers reported feeling concerned when sharing the road with cyclists, and novices were less likely to agree that cyclists had a right to use the roads. Conclusions and practical applications: The analysis suggests novices need to be better equipped to share roads confidently with cyclists and to recognize cyclists as legitimate traffic participants.

Risk to workers or vehicle damage: What makes drivers slow down in work zones?

OBJECTIVE: Speeding in work zones is common and poses significant safety hazards to motorists and workers. Previous studies have demonstrated that speeding is reduced when workers are visible to the drivers, suggesting that concern for the safety of workers influences drivers' speed choice. Conversely, the extent of speeding when workers are not visible suggests that drivers underestimate the increased risk of crashes or other damage to their vehicles associated with the poorer road conditions common at roadworks (loose surfaces and debris, narrower lane width and drop-offs etc.). To better understand the factors influencing drivers' speeds in work zones, this paper examined the extent to which drivers' speed choices are influenced by their perceived likelihoods of injuring workers and damaging their own vehicles. METHODS: Driver-nominated speeds and perceived likelihoods of worker injury and vehicle damage were collected in an online survey of 405 drivers from Queensland, Australia, by showing photographs of 12 real-world work zones. The data were analyzed using regression techniques to examine the factors influencing driver-nominated speeds and likelihood of speeding. RESULTS: The results supported the hypothesis that both drivers' perceived likelihood of injuring workers and damaging vehicles strongly influence their nominated speeds (p < 0.001). Young and middle-aged drivers nominated 2.5-6.3 km/h higher speeds than older drivers (p < 0.001). Car drivers who also held truck licenses nominated 4.5 km/h higher speeds (p < 0.001) and 81% higher odds of nominating speeds higher than posted limits (p < 0.001) than car-only licensed drivers. Drivers nominated lower speeds at road curves (12.1 km/h lower speed and 53% lower odds of speeding, p < 0.001), if adjacent areas of travel lanes were unpaved or had loose materials (11.5 km/h lower speed and 66% lower odds, p < 0.001), and when workers were visible in work zones (1.4 km/h lower speed, p = 0.004, and 27% lower odds, p = 0.041). CONCLUSIONS: In addition to driver demographic and work zone characteristics, drivers' perceptions of safe speeds depend on their perceptions of the likelihood of worker injury and vehicle damage at work zones. These findings suggest that interventions to heighten drivers' perceptions of the likelihood of damage to their vehicles may be useful in moderating speeds at roadworks.

Comparing the risky behaviours of shared and private e-scooter and bicycle riders in downtown Brisbane, Australia.

Electric scooter (e-scooter) use has increased internationally, with concerns about injuries to riders and pedestrians, and reports of non-use of helmets, excessive speed, drink-riding and underage riding. E-scooter regulations vary widely among jurisdictions, with likely effects on the extent and nature of safety issues. This study was conducted in downtown Brisbane, Australia, where e-scooters must be ridden on the footpath, bicycles are allowed on the road and the footpath, and helmet use is mandatory for bicycle and e-scooter riders of all ages. It examined involvement in illegal and risky behaviours, and interactions with pedestrians. Shared and private e-scooters, and shared and private bicycles were compared to assess the relative influences of type of vehicle and shared use. Observations at six sites in downtown Brisbane in February 2019 recorded 711 shared e-scooters, 90 private e-scooters, 274 shared bicycles and 2788 private bicycles. Illegal riding (not wearing a helmet, riding on the road, or carrying a passenger) was more prevalent among shared than private e-scooters (49.6 % vs. 12.2 %). Non-use of helmets was more common among riders of shared e-scooters (38.6 %, OR = 20.995, p < .001) and shared bicycles (18.8 %, OR = 10.994, p < .001) than private bicycles (1.5 %); occurred more often on the footpath than the road (20.1 % vs. 1.8 %, OR = 3.004, p < .001); and occurred more between 2 and 4 pm than between 7 and 9a.m. (21.3 % vs. 5.5 %, OR = 1.711, p < .01). More than 90 % of e-scooters, about half of shared bicycles and about a quarter of private bicycles were ridden on the footpath, with about 40 % within 1 m of at least one pedestrian. When there were pedestrians within 1 m, conflict rates ranged from zero to 1.5 % and no collisions were observed. At least for helmet non-use, the results suggest that risky behaviours are more prevalent among users of shared schemes, and that this difference is accentuated for e-scooters. Interactions with pedestrians are common but conflicts rarely occur in footpath riding. Further observational and survey studies are recommended to better understand the factors influencing the perceptions and behaviours of shared and private e-scooters and pedestrians. The knowledge gained from these studies needs to be integrated with injury outcome data to determine the appropriateness of rules for maximum speeds and locations of riding in terms of both rider and pedestrian safety.

Women cycling in Queensland: Results from an observational study.

Women are less likely to ride than men in low cycling countries such as Australia. In Australia, self-reported cycling participation appears to be declining, particularly for women. This paper examines the rider and road environment correlates of women's cycling. While most earlier studies relied on self-report data to understand gender differences in cycling, this study video-recorded 24,868 riders (22 % female) at 17 sites across Queensland, Australia. The probabilities of an observed rider being female under different circumstances (e.g., speed limit, riding location, time of riding, group riding) at these sites were modelled in a binomial logistic regression framework. The likelihood of a rider being a woman was greater during the day (9am-8pm) than the early morning (5-9 a.m.); on weekends than on weekdays; in groups of two or more riders than among single riders; in lower speed zones than speed zones of 60 km/h or over; on roads with bike lanes or multiple traffic lanes or raised medians than on roads without these, and in urban areas than suburban areas. The likelihood of the rider being a woman was lower among those riding road bikes than other types of bicycles. The use of a naturalistic study design marks the key strength of this paper. Findings of this study should help better understand women's cycling patterns and preferred cycling locations, which cycling communities and organisations can use to advocate for better roads and paths that make female riders feel safe.

Driver knowledge of cycling-related road rules in Queensland, Australia.

OBJECTIVES: Violations of road rules are common in bicycle-motor vehicle crashes, but little is known about how much this results from lack of knowledge of the rules. This article addresses the research questions of how well do drivers know the road rules related to interacting with cyclists, and what factors influence their level of knowledge. METHODS: An online survey compared drivers who reported riding bicycles on Queensland roads in the previous 12 months ("cyclists": n = 2,839) and those who did not ("drivers": n = 4,070). A list of 10 plausible road rules (four were not actual rules) relating to interactions between motor vehicles and bicycles was presented, and participants were asked "Which of the following road rules applies in Queensland?" The response options for each item were "Yes," "No," and "I don't know". RESULTS: The percentages correct varied markedly across the rules, from 86.5% to 38.7% for cyclists and from 72.2% to 20.9% for drivers. Incorrect responses were generally more common than "Don't know" responses (cyclists: 22.3% incorrect, 9.8% "Don't know"; drivers: 29.9% incorrect, 19.6% "Don't know"). The hierarchical regression analysis confirmed that cyclists had better road rule knowledge than drivers. In the cyclist-only model, more frequent riding was significantly associated with better road rule knowledge but explained only 3% of the total variance. Older cyclists and those living in more urbanized areas had better knowledge but age and location of residence together added only 1% to the variance explained. In the driver-only model, knowledge was better for male, older, more educated participants and those living in more urbanized areas but these variables together accounted for only 5% of the variance. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study suggest that improving knowledge of some current road rules could be beneficial for cycling safety but for some other rules, improved knowledge could be detrimental for cycling safety and changing the rules to reflect shared perceptions of safe behavior may be more beneficial. For each of the rules, further research is needed to examine the links between knowledge and compliance, and the influence of compliance on the risks of bicycle-motor vehicle crashes and near misses.

Understanding vehicle crashes in work zones: Analysis of workplace health and safety data as an alternative to police-reported crash data in Queensland, Australia.

Objectives: Vehicle crashes in work zones are significantly underreported in official crash datasets of many countries, including Australia. This leads to underestimations of work zone crash frequencies and limited understanding of crash causation factors. To address this important gap in the literature, this paper examines historical data from two different sources - police-reported crash data and organizational Workplace Health and Safety (WHS) records - to understand work zone crashes and their characteristics in Queensland, Australia.Methods: WHS data including text fields were cleaned and coded to match police-reported crash data variables for comparative descriptive analysis of a 45-month period. involvement of a moving vehicle that collided with another vehicle, pedestrian, object, or overturned, at a work zone accessible to public traffic.Results: There were more work zone crashes in the WHS data (N = 820) than the police-reported data (N = 128) and the WHS data offered a deeper understanding of incident causes due to the greater breadth of information available. The two data sets varied in terms of the patterns of crash type, the mixes of road users and vehicles involved, and the contributing factors that were identified, highlighting dangers of relying on single sources for understanding crash characteristics. The WHS data appear relatively consistent with the overall work zone safety literature, but their use has limitations regarding processing and reliability. Conversely, police-reported crash data can be analyzed efficiently but they suffer from underreporting and selective reporting.Conclusions: The WHS dataset is a valuable alternative to police-reported crash data for understanding vehicle crash characteristics in work zones, particularly where restrictive reporting criteria lead to inability to identify these crashes in police data. Reliability and utility of WHS data could be improved through advanced reporting systems and procedures, potentially including development of an app-based system for use on mobile electronic devices.

Drivers who don't comply with a minimum passing distance rule when passing bicycle riders.

INTRODUCTION: Drivers' passing cyclists closely can contribute to crashes, falls, and intimidation, which may discourage cycling. In response, minimum passing distance (MPD) rules have been introduced in many jurisdictions. This study examined the factors associated with non-compliance with a MPD rule. METHOD: An online survey of 3,769 drivers in Queensland, Australia was administered 1 year after a MPD rule began. It assessed compliance with and attitudes toward the rule. Linear regression modeling was used to examine which attitudinal and demographic factors were associated with non-compliance. RESULTS: The percentage of drivers who reported that they did not comply with the road rule "most of the time" or "almost always" was 35.5% in speed zones of ≤60 km/h and 31.8% in speed zones of >60 km/h. Associated with a greater likelihood of being non-compliant were: only infrequently observing motorists giving bicycle riders more distance when overtaking; greater awareness of bicycle riders when driving on the road; disagreeing that the rule had changed the person's driving; agreeing that the rule was making overtaking bicycle riders difficult; disagreeing that the rule had made it safer for bicycle riders; agreeing that it was difficult to judge 1 or 1.5 m when overtaking a bicycle rider; and agreeing that giving 1.5 m clearance in >60 km/h zones to bicycle riders was annoying (p < .05). In high speed zones, drivers aged 18-39 years were more likely than those aged 50+ years to be non-compliant (p < .05). Compliance was not associated with driver sex, amount of driving, or perceived level of enforcement. CONCLUSIONS: Reported non-compliance with the MPD rule is widespread and is related more to attitudinal than demographic factors. Practical applications: Strategies for helping drivers to judge passing distance and improve their understanding of the importance for cyclist safety of leaving an adequate distance are needed.

Factors influencing noncompliance with bicycle passing distance laws.

Many jurisdictions around the world have implemented laws to require a minimum distance when motor vehicles pass cyclists, but research into the factors influencing passing distances has produced inconsistent results, indicating the need for future research. This study examined the factors influencing motorists' compliance with a legislated bicycle passing distance rule in Queensland, Australia. Unlike the earlier studies, which used volunteer riders to record passing events, this study used a naturalistic study design to record passing events where none of the motorists or the cyclists were aware of being studied. As a result, this study captured the 'true' driving and riding behaviours during passing events. The likelihood of non-compliance was greater on higher (70-80 km/h speed limits) and lower (40 km/h) speed roads than 60 km/h roads, at curved road sections, and on roads with narrower traffic lanes. Rider characteristics (age, gender, helmet status, type of clothing, type of bicycle, and individual or group riding) had no statistically significant association with compliance status. The findings indicate that efforts to improve cyclist safety during overtaking events should focus on non-rider related factors, such as roadway infrastructure characteristics.